Who Gets To Be an American?

The busiest day ever at Ellis Island, once America’s chief entry point for immigrants, took place on April 17, 1907. After long voyages from countries such as Italy and Russia, 11,747 people disembarked, awaiting an opportunity to settle in the United States. Inside the cavernous Registry Room, doctors examined each new arrival for contagious diseases. Inspectors questioned them about where they came from, how much money they’d brought with them, and whether they were willing and able to work. After a few hours of inspection, most immigrants received permission to begin their new lives in America.

Between 1880 and 1914, when World War I began, more than 20 million immigrants arrived in the U.S. In 1907, the peak year, over one million reached our shores, fleeing poverty and persecution in Southern and Eastern Europe for the booming industrial economy of the U.S.

But in 1924, that vast flow of newcomers abruptly slowed to a trickle after the passage of a new law. The Johnson-Reed Act capped the total number of immigrants allowed annually into the U.S. at 165,000, a small fraction of the numbers that had been arriving. It also established a quota system that favored immigrants from Northern and Western Europe—countries such as Great Britain, Ireland, and Germany—and severely restricted those from Italy and Eastern Europe.

The law’s strict limits still influence the U.S. immigration system today, historians say.

On April 17, 1907, 11,747 people on ships disembarked at Ellis Island, once America’s main entry point for immigrants. It was the busiest day in Ellis Island’s history. Immigrants came to the United States hoping to start a new life. They had traveled long distances from countries such as Italy and Russia. Inside the large Registry Room, doctors examined each new arrival for contagious diseases. Inspectors questioned them about where they came from and  how much money they’d brought with them. Immigrants were asked whether they were willing and able to work. After a few hours of inspection, most immigrants were allowed to begin their new lives in America.

Between 1880 and 1914, more than 20 million immigrants arrived in the U.S. In 1907, the peak year, over one million people came to America. They were fleeing poverty and persecution in Southern and Eastern Europe. The booming industrial economy of the U.S. offered new opportunities.

But in 1924, that number of newcomers abruptly decreased after the passage of a new law. The Johnson-Reed Act capped the total number of immigrants allowed annually into the U.S. at 165,000, a small fraction of the numbers that had been arriving. It also established a quota system. Immigrants from countries such as Great Britain, Ireland, and Germany were favored. Meanwhile, severe restrictions were placed on those from Italy and Eastern Europe.

The law’s strict limits still influence the U.S. immigration system today, historians say.

“The really important impact is that it established what has never since been questioned,” says Katherine Benton-Cohen, a historian at Georgetown University. The law “cements, for the first time in American history, a limit on the number of immigrants we allow in.”

As the U.S. marks the 100th anniversary of the Johnson-Reed Act, the nation once again finds itself amid a heated debate about immigration. Late last year, the number of migrants crossing the southern border hit record highs, prompting a wave of outrage that the federal government seemed unable to control the border. In some communities, the influx of new arrivals has put a strain on local services and angered some Americans.

But historians say the tensions between U.S. citizens and those seeking a fresh start here are nothing new.

“Throughout American history there has always been a tussle over immigration,” says Alan Kraut, a professor of history at American University in Washington, D.C. “There’s an old saying from the late 19th century: ‘America beckons, but Americans repel.’”

“The really important impact is that it established what has never since been questioned,” says Katherine Benton-Cohen, a historian at Georgetown University. The law “cements, for the first time in American history, a limit on the number of immigrants we allow in.”

As the U.S. marks the 100th anniversary of the Johnson-Reed Act, the nation once again finds itself amid a heated debate about immigration. Late last year, the number of migrants crossing the southern border hit record highs. This prompted outrage that the federal government seemed unable to control the border. In some communities, the arrival of so many new people has put a strain on local services and angered some Americans.

But historians say the tensions between U.S. citizens and those seeking a fresh start here are nothing new.

“Throughout American history there has always been a tussle over immigration,” says Alan Kraut, a professor of history at American University in Washington, D.C. “There’s an old saying from the late 19th century: ‘America beckons, but Americans repel.’”

That ambivalence dates back to the nation’s founding (see timeline slideshow, below). In 1776, most White Americans were the descendants of Anglo-Saxon Protestants from the British Isles who came in search of economic opportunity or to escape religious or political persecution. In addition to the Native Americans who had inhabited the land for centuries, there were also enslaved people brought from Africa and large numbers of Dutch, Spanish, and Germans.

Americans have often been wary of welcoming foreigners. Even before America’s founding, Benjamin Franklin worried that German immigrants were taking over his state.

“Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of aliens,” Franklin wrote in 1751.

The 19th century brought very different immigrants, starting with the Irish and later Italians, both groups largely poor farmers and Catholic. Then came the Chinese, who arrived in large numbers on the West Coast during the Gold Rush and later helped build the railroads, and Jews fleeing pogroms in Russia and Eastern Europe.

Before 1875, America placed few restrictions on immigration. Westward expansion, the industrial revolution, and the abolition of slavery created enormous demand for workers.

“If you were European and you were not a Communist and you were not ill, you could enter,” says Gary Gerstle, a professor of American history at the University of Cambridge, in England. “And extraordinary numbers of people were coming.”

That inconsistency goes back to the nation’s founding (see timeline slideshow, below). In 1776, most White Americans were the descendants of Anglo-Saxon Protestants from the British Isles. They came to America in search of economic opportunity or to escape religious or political persecution. In addition to the Native Americans who had inhabited the land for centuries, there were also enslaved people who were brought from Africa. There were also large numbers of Dutch, Spanish, and Germans.

Americans have often been cautious of welcoming foreigners. Even before America’s founding, Benjamin Franklin worried that German immigrants were taking over his state.

“Why should Pennsylvania, founded by the English, become a colony of aliens,” Franklin wrote in 1751.

The 19th century brought very different immigrants. It started with groups of largely poor farmers and Catholics from Ireland and Italy. Then came the arrival of the Chinese. They came in large numbers to the West Coast during the Gold Rush. Chinese workers later helped build the railroads. Then Jews fleeing pogroms in Russia and Eastern Europe began coming to America.

Before 1875, America placed few restrictions on immigration. There was a great demand for workers because of Westward expansion, the industrial revolution, and the abolition of slavery.

“If you were European and you were not a Communist and you were not ill, you could enter,” says Gary Gerstle, a professor of American history at the University of Cambridge, in England. “And extraordinary numbers of people were coming.”

But the surge in Catholic Irish and Italian immigrants provoked a backlash in what was a largely Protestant nation. In the 1840s, a new political party, the Know-Nothings, formed in opposition to immigration. Its members feared that immigrants would take their jobs and that Catholics would take over the country.

In the West, protests erupted against Chinese immigrants, and in 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, barring new immigrants from China. (Congress repealed it in 1943.)

Opposition to immigration further intensified as the number of immigrants soared at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, the percentage of the U.S. population born in a foreign country peaked at 14.7 percent. But in many cities, where new arrivals tended to go, the immigrant population grew much denser. Immigrants comprised more than 40 percent of New York City’s population in 1910.

During this period, there was “growing concern that [immigrants are] of different religious backgrounds and that they’re overcrowding cities and driving down wages,” says Benton-Cohen.

After World War I (1914-18) and the Russian Revolution of 1917, many Americans worried that immigrants would import Communism and anarchism to the U.S. Calls increased for lawmakers to put a lid on immigration to keep the nation safe. This is the environment in which the Johnson-Reed Act became law in 1924. It sailed through both houses of Congress with little opposition.

In addition to limiting the overall number of immigrants allowed per year, the Johnson-Reed Act created an elaborate quota system that determined how many people could immigrate annually from each country.

But the surge in Catholic Irish and Italian immigrants provoked a backlash in what was a largely Protestant nation. A new political party called the Know-Nothings was formed in the 1840s. Its members came together in opposition to immigration. They feared that immigrants would take their jobs and that Catholics would take over the country.

In the West, protests erupted against Chinese immigrants. In 1882, Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act, barring new immigrants from China. (The law was later repealed by Congress in 1943.)

Opposition to immigration further intensified as the number of immigrants soared at the beginning of the 20th century. In 1910, the percentage of the U.S. population born in a foreign country reached its highest mark at 14.7 percent. But in many cities, where new arrivals settled, the immigrant population grew much denser. In 1910, Immigrants made up more than 40 percent of New York City’s population.

During this period, there was “growing concern that [immigrants are] of different religious backgrounds and that they’re overcrowding cities and driving down wages,” says Benton-Cohen.

After World War I (1914-18) and the Russian Revolution of 1917, many Americans worried that immigrants would bring Communism and anarchism to the U.S. Calls increased for lawmakers to keep the nation safe by limiting immigration. This resulted in the Johnson-Reed Act becoming law in 1924. It sailed through both houses of Congress with little opposition.

In addition to limiting the overall number of immigrants allowed per year, the Johnson-Reed Act created an elaborate quota system. The system determined how many people could immigrate annually from each country.

The 1890 census served as the template for the quotas: The law set each country’s quota at 2 percent of its immigrant population in the U.S. at that time. The 1890 Census came before the massive turn-of-the-century influx of arrivals from Italy and Eastern Europe, so the quotas reserved about 140,000 slots for people from Northern and Western Europe, leaving only about 20,000 for Eastern and Southern Europe and the rest of the world.

“They wanted to essentially turn the ethno-racial clock back to where it had been before the recent immigration wave,” says A.K. Sandoval-Strausz, a historian at Penn State University. “The intent of the law was to prevent people who were different from the Anglo-Saxon White Protestant leadership class of the United States from coming.”

At the time, lawmakers essentially said so themselves. Senator David Reed of Pennsylvania, a bill co-sponsor, wrote in a New York Times op-ed that “unless immigration is numerically restrained, [America] will be overwhelmed by a vast migration of peoples from the war-stricken countries of Europe.” He added, “The races of man who have been coming in recent years are wholly dissimilar to the native-born Americans.”

The quotas not only changed the makeup of America’s immigrant pool but made the pool much smaller overall. During World War II, U.S. quotas prevented millions of Jews and other refugees from escaping the Nazis and the Holocaust.

“The effect is catastrophic,” says Sandoval-Strausz. “Exactly at a time when a large group of people in Europe are fleeing the Nazis, [the U.S.] . . . closes its doors.”

The 1890 census served as the template for the quotas. The law set each country’s quota at 2 percent of its immigrant population in the U.S. at that time. The 1890 Census came before the massive turn-of-the-century influx of arrivals from Italy and Eastern Europe. At the time, people from Northern and Western Europe made up most of the population of the U.S. Based on that, the quotas reserved about 140,000 slots for people from Northern and Western Europe and left only about 20,000 for Eastern and Southern Europe and the rest of the world.

“They wanted to essentially turn the ethno-racial clock back to where it had been before the recent immigration wave,” says A.K. Sandoval-Strausz, a historian at Penn State University. “The intent of the law was to prevent people who were different from the Anglo-Saxon White Protestant leadership class of the United States from coming.”

At the time, lawmakers essentially said so themselves. Senator David Reed of Pennsylvania, a bill co-sponsor, wrote in a New York Times op-ed that “unless immigration is numerically restrained, [America] will be overwhelmed by a vast migration of peoples from the war-stricken countries of Europe.” He added, “The races of man who have been coming in recent years are wholly dissimilar to the native-born Americans.”

The quotas not only changed the makeup of America’s immigrant pool but made the pool much smaller overall. During World War II, U.S. quotas prevented millions of Jews and other refugees from escaping the Nazis and the Holocaust.

“The effect is catastrophic,” says Sandoval-Strausz. “Exactly at a time when a large group of people in Europe are fleeing the Nazis, [the U.S.] . . . closes its doors.”

The quotas remained in effect until President Lyndon Johnson signed a new immigration law in 1965, driven in part by the demands of the civil rights movement. That legislation effectively opened America up to large-scale immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America for the first time. It gave priority to relatives of U.S. citizens, professionals with specialized skills, and refugees.

That shift has contributed to the nation’s growing racial diversity. The top country of origin for America’s current foreign-born population is Mexico, followed by China, India, and the Philippines, according to the Pew Research Center, a nonpartisan think tank.

Along with that growing diversity, the number of immigrants in the U.S. has soared since the 1965 immigration overhaul, and today immigrants account for 13.8 percent of the population, according to Pew.

The quotas remained in effect until 1965. In response to the demands of the civil rights movement, President Lyndon Johnson signed a new immigration law. The law effectively opened America up to large-scale immigration from Asia, Africa, and Latin America for the first time. It gave priority to relatives of U.S. citizens, professionals with specialized skills, and refugees.

That shift has contributed to the nation’s growing racial diversity. Today the top country of origin for America’s foreign-born population is Mexico, followed by China, India, and the Philippines, according to the Pew Research Center, a nonpartisan think tank.

Along with that growing diversity, the number of immigrants in the U.S. has soared since the 1965 immigration overhaul. According to Pew, today immigrants account for 13.8 percent of the population.

Scholars say it’s unsurprising that immigration has again become a bone of contention. In the decades since President Ronald Reagan signed the last major immigration reform law in 1986, Congress has become increasingly polarized, diminishing the chances for compromise on immigration reform.

Despite the ongoing controversies that the topic stirs up, Gerstle says it’s likely today’s newcomers will become part of the fabric of U.S. society over time, and anxiety over their differences will recede.

“The people who were the targets of the 1924 law . . . become the ‘greatest generation’ that fights World War II,” he says. History gives us reason to hope that “the assimilative powers of America will work [again].”

Scholars say it’s unsurprising that immigration has again become a hot topic. In the decades since President Ronald Reagan signed the last major immigration reform law in 1986, Congress has become increasingly polarized, lessening the chances for compromise on immigration reform.

Despite the ongoing controversies, Gerstle says it’s likely today’s newcomers will become part of the fabric of U.S. society over time, and anxiety over their differences will recede.

“The people who were the targets of the 1924 law . . . become the ‘greatest generation’ that fights World War II,” he says. History gives us reason to hope that “the assimilative powers of America will work [again].”