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Elizabeth Eckford is harassed as she tries to enter Little Rock’s Central High on Sept. 4, 1957.

The Little Rock Nine

Sixty years ago this month, President Eisenhower sent federal troops into Arkansas to enforce the desegregation of Little Rock’s Central High School

The first thing Elizabeth Eckford noticed as she walked toward Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, was the throng of people waiting for her. It was the morning of Sept. 4, 1957, and Eckford, 15, was one of nine black students chosen to integrate all-white Central High. The entire group was supposed to meet up before heading to school, but Eckford hadn’t gotten the message. She was alone.

As the crowd of angry whites shouted epithets and threatened to lynch her, she felt relieved at first when she saw the Arkansas National Guard surrounding the school. But as she approached, the guardsmen refused to allow her to pass. It was then that she realized the soldiers weren’t there to protect her: They were there to prevent her and the eight other  students from entering the school.

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U.S. Army troops escort nine black students out of Little Rock’s Central High School in the fall of 1957.

TheLittle Rock Nine,” as they became known, didn’t make it inside that day. The drama played out for three weeks, ending only after President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent in federal troops to ensure that the black students made it safely through the school’s front doors. The events, broadcast on national TV, helped light a fire under the civil rights movement three years after the Supreme Court had declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional.

It took an incredible amount of bravery from those nine students to face what was real terrorism and mob violence,” says Alvin Tillery, a professor of political science and African-American studies at Northwestern University in Illinois. “Elizabeth Eckford being threatened, harassed, and spat on, and her calm resistance became an iconic symbol of the civil rights movement.”

Segregation & the Supreme Court

Seeds of the confrontation had been sown in 1954, when the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (see Timeline, below). The justices unanimously ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional under the 14th Amendment, which guarantees equal protection under the law. The Brown ruling overturned theseparate but equalprinciple established by the Court in 1896 in Plessy v. Ferguson.

Most Southern states defied the Brown ruling or took only token steps to comply. In Little Rock, the school board agreed to gradual desegregation, beginning in the fall of 1957 at Central High.

As the fall approached, segregationists in Little Rock were predicting that violence would erupt if integration took place. But a federal court ordered the school district to proceed. The school board selected nine black students from a pool of more than 100 volunteers.

 On September 4, when Eckford and the eight other students tried to enter Central High for the first timethey were confronted by a mob of white hecklers.

Are you scared?” a New York Times reporter asked one of them, 15-year-old Terrence Roberts, that day.

‘I think the students would like me OK once I got in and they got to know me.’

Yes, I am,” he replied. “I think the students would like me OK once I got in and they got to know me.”

But Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, who sent in the state’s National Guard troops, made sure it didn’t happen that first day.

On September 20, a federal judge ordered Faubus to recall the troops. He complied, and three days later, Little Rock police escorted the nine students into the school through a side door. But rioting broke out among the more than 1,000 white protesters in front of the school, and police removed the black students after a few hours, fearing for their safety

In a dramatic climax to the Little Rock crisis, President Eisenhower sent 1,200 troops from the Army’s 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock on September 24 and placed all 10,000 Arkansas National Guardsmen under federal control. For the first time since Reconstruction, a president had ordered armed federal troops to the South to ensure that the civil rights of blacks were protected

Eisenhower addressed the nation on TV and radio that night, saying he’d reluctantly intervened. “Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of the courts,” he said

The next day, as a sullen crowd of 1,500 whites watched, armed soldiers ringed Central High School. Racial integration was achieved, at bayonet point, by the six black girls and three black boys on September 25 at 9:25 a.m., 40 minutes after the opening bell

Sixteen-year-old Ernest Green sounded hopeful later that day. “Things would be better if only the grown-ups wouldn’t mix in,” he said. “The kids have nothing against us. They hear bad things about us from their parents.”

Federal troops were gradually withdrawn, but even with National Guard troops remaining for the rest of the school year to protect them, the black students faced abuse. Gloria Ray, 15, reported that white students called her names, spat at her, vandalized her locker, and pushed her down a flight of stairs.

Minnijean Brown, 16, was suspended after dumping a bowl of chili on a white boy’s head in response to taunts in the school cafeteria and was later expelled for standing up to a white girl. But the rest of the Little Rock Nine finished the school year, and in May 1958, Green became Central High’s first black graduate

In September 1958, in a final act of defiance against integration, Governor Faubus closed Little Rock’s public high schools for the school year, forcing all studentswhite and blackwho weren’t able to go to private schools to take courses by mail or enroll out of state. Some of the Little Rock Nine moved away, while others took correspondence courses. When the closings were declared unconstitutional by a federal court and Central High reopened in 1959, only two of the original black students returned.

Green, who later earned a master’s degree in sociology, went on to become  assistant secretary of labor under President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Most of the other Little Rock Nine finished high school (though only three graduated from Central High), and many went on to college and graduate school, becoming accountants, lawyers, professors, activists, and journalists

A Postracial America?

Eight of the Little Rock Nine are still alive today, and seven attended President Barack Obama’s 2009 inaugurationan event that must have seemed unimaginable in Little Rock in 1957. The election of America’s first black president led many to proclaim that we had entered apostracialAmerica. But recent tensions, including clashes between police and black communities, have called that idea into question. Still, according to Professor Tillery of Northwestern, the legacy of the Little Rock Nine lives on and offers lessons for young people who want to make a difference today.

We can all do something to make America better,” he says. “It doesn’t only take heroes to make our democracy work; it takes engaged citizens.”

Timeline: The Civil Rights Era

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The Tuskegee Airmen, a black Army Air Corps unit during World War II

1948: The Military

President Harry S. Truman issues an executive order to desegregate the U.S. armed forces. After widespread resistance in the military, the last all-black unit is dissolved in 1954.

1954: Brown v. Board of Education

The U.S. Supreme Court rules that segregated public schools are unconstitutional, overturning theseparate but equalstandard established in 1896.

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Rosa Parks in December 1956, after helping end segregation on Montgomery buses

1955: Bus Boycott

Rosa Parks is arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus. This sparks a boycott of city buses, led by Martin Luther King Jr.

1957: The Little Rock Nine

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1960: Greensboro

Four black college students in North Carolina stage a sit-in at an all-white lunch counter. The protest helps galvanize young blacks across the U.S.

1963: ‘I Have a Dream’

Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his famousI Have a Dreamspeech to more than 250,000 people in Washington, D.C.

1964: Civil Rights Act

President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964, outlawing segregation in public places and employment.

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Congress outlaws literacy tests, poll taxes, and other obstacles
to black voter registration (above, President Johnson with Martin Luther King Jr. after signing the bill at the U.S. Capitol).

August 1965Voting Rights Act

Congress outlaws literacy tests, poll taxes, and other obstacles to black voter registration (above, President Johnson with Martin Luther King Jr. after signing the bill at the U.S. Capitol).

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