The first thing Elizabeth Eckford noticed as she walked toward Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, was the
As the crowd of angry whites shouted
Elizabeth Eckford is harassed as she tries to enter Little Rock’s Central High on Sept. 4, 1957.
The Little Rock Nine
Sixty years ago this month, President Eisenhower sent federal troops into Arkansas to enforce the desegregation of Little Rock’s Central High School
The first thing Elizabeth Eckford noticed as she walked toward Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, was the
As the crowd of angry whites shouted
U.S. Army troops escort nine black students out of Little Rock’s Central High School in the fall of 1957.
The “Little Rock Nine,” as they became known, didn’t make it inside that day. The drama played out for three weeks, ending only after President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent in federal troops to ensure that the black students made it safely through the school’s front doors. The events, broadcast on national TV, helped light a fire under the civil rights movement three years after the Supreme Court had declared segregation in public schools unconstitutional.
“It took an incredible amount of bravery from those nine students to face what was real terrorism and mob violence,” says Alvin Tillery, a professor of political science and African-American studies at Northwestern University in Illinois. “Elizabeth Eckford being threatened, harassed, and spat on, and her calm resistance became an iconic symbol of the civil rights movement.”
Segregation & the Supreme Court
Seeds of the confrontation had been sown in 1954, when the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its landmark decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (see Timeline, below). The justices
Most Southern states defied the Brown ruling or took only token steps to comply. In Little Rock, the school board agreed to gradual desegregation, beginning in the fall of 1957 at Central High.
As the fall approached, segregationists in Little Rock were predicting that violence would erupt if integration took place. But a federal court ordered the school district to proceed. The school board selected nine black students from a pool of more than 100 volunteers.
On September 4, when Eckford and the eight other students tried to enter Central High for the first time, they were confronted by a mob of white hecklers.
“Are you scared?” a New York Times reporter asked one of them, 15-year-old Terrence Roberts, that day.
‘I think the students would like me OK once I got in and they got to know me.’
“Yes, I am,” he replied. “I think the students would like me OK once I got in and they got to know me.”
But Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus, who sent in the state’s National Guard troops, made sure it didn’t happen that first day.
On September 20, a federal judge ordered Faubus to recall the troops. He complied, and three days later, Little Rock police escorted the nine students into the school through a side door. But rioting broke out among the more than 1,000 white protesters in front of the school, and police removed the black students after a few hours, fearing for their safety.
In a dramatic
Eisenhower addressed the nation on TV and radio that night, saying he’d reluctantly intervened. “Mob rule cannot be allowed to override the decisions of the courts,” he said.
The next day, as a sullen crowd of 1,500 whites watched, armed soldiers ringed Central High School. Racial integration was achieved, at
Sixteen-year-old Ernest Green sounded hopeful later that day. “Things would be better if only the grown-ups wouldn’t mix in,” he said. “The kids have nothing against us. They hear bad things about us from their parents.”
Federal troops were gradually withdrawn, but even with National Guard troops remaining for the rest of the school year to protect them, the black students faced abuse. Gloria Ray, 15, reported that white students called her names, spat at her, vandalized her locker, and pushed her down a flight of stairs.
Minnijean Brown, 16, was suspended after dumping a bowl of chili on a white boy’s head in response to taunts in the school cafeteria and was later expelled for standing up to a white girl. But the rest of the Little Rock Nine finished the school year, and in May 1958, Green became Central High’s first black graduate.
In September 1958, in a final act of defiance against integration, Governor Faubus closed Little Rock’s public high schools for the school year, forcing all students—white and black—who weren’t able to go to private schools to take courses by mail or enroll out of state. Some of the Little Rock Nine moved away, while others took correspondence courses. When the closings were declared unconstitutional by a federal court and Central High reopened in 1959, only two of the original black students returned.
Green, who later earned a master’s degree in sociology, went on to become assistant secretary of labor under President Jimmy Carter in 1977. Most of the other Little Rock Nine finished high school (though only three graduated from Central High), and many went on to college and graduate school, becoming accountants, lawyers, professors, activists, and journalists.
A Postracial America?
Eight of the Little Rock Nine are still alive today, and seven attended President Barack Obama’s 2009 inauguration—an event that must have seemed unimaginable in Little Rock in 1957. The election of America’s first black president led many to proclaim that we had entered a “
“We can all do something to make America better,” he says. “It doesn’t only take heroes to make our democracy work; it takes engaged citizens.”
Timeline: The Civil Rights Era
The Tuskegee Airmen, a black Army Air Corps unit during World War II
1948: The Military
President Harry S. Truman issues an executive order to desegregate the U.S. armed forces. After widespread resistance in the military, the last all-black unit is dissolved in 1954.
1954: Brown v. Board of Education
The U.S. Supreme Court rules that segregated public schools are unconstitutional, overturning the “separate but equal” standard established in 1896.
Rosa Parks in December 1956, after helping end segregation on Montgomery buses
1955: Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks is arrested in Montgomery, Alabama, for refusing to give up her seat to a white passenger on a bus. This sparks a boycott of city buses, led by Martin Luther King Jr.
1957: The Little Rock Nine
1960: Greensboro
Four black college students in North Carolina stage a sit-in at an all-white lunch counter. The protest helps
1963: ‘I Have a Dream’
Martin Luther King Jr. delivers his famous “I Have a Dream” speech to more than 250,000 people in Washington, D.C.
1964: Civil Rights Act
President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964, outlawing segregation in public places and employment.
Congress outlaws literacy tests, poll taxes, and other obstacles
to black voter registration (above, President Johnson with Martin Luther King Jr. after signing the bill at the U.S. Capitol).
August 1965: Voting Rights Act
Congress outlaws literacy tests, poll taxes, and other obstacles to black voter registration (above, President Johnson with Martin Luther King Jr. after signing the bill at the U.S. Capitol).