The Real Cleopatra

She’s been the subject of countless movies, plays, and books. Her name alone evokes images of striking beauty.

But the story many people know of Cleopatra, the famous Egyptian queen, overshadows who she really was, historians say. For nearly 20 years, she safeguarded the legacy of Egypt’s ancient civilization and almost did the impossible: keeping Egypt independent from Rome. Though she failed in the end, she proved to be one of the most adept rulers in history.

“She was a highly educated and skilled administrator,” says historian Duane Roller, author of Cleopatra: A Biography, “who fought very hard—yet unsuccessfully—to save her kingdom in a changing world.”

However, he adds, a dangerous outsider who used her beauty to grasp for power “is far more interesting than a competent administrator and ruler, and so that was the version that survived.”

Now a growing body of new scholarship has sought to paint a fuller, truer picture of Cleopatra. So who was she, really?

One surprising but important fact about Cleopatra is that Egypt’s last pharaoh was not, strictly speaking, Egyptian. Her family descended from Ptolemy I (TAHL-eh-mee), who was originally from the European kingdom of Macedonia. He was a chief officer under Alexander the Great, the famed military commander who conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. After Alexander’s death, his top generals divided up his empire. Ptolemy took control of Egypt and founded a dynasty that lasted for 300 years.

Born to royalty in 69 B.C., Cleopatra received the best education available. Ancient authorities say she was exceptionally smart, spoke multiple languages, and possessed great charm. Displaying a keen interest in the people who would later become her subjects, she may have been the only member of her family’s dynasty to learn the Egyptian language.

Following a long-standing practice, 18-year-old Cleopatra and her younger brother, King Ptolemy XIII, became co-rulers when their father died in 51 B.C. It would take every bit of her smarts to survive what she inherited.

She’s been the subject of countless movies, plays, and books. Her name alone evokes images of striking beauty.

But many people only know one version of Cleopatra, the famous Egyptian queen. That depiction overshadows who she really was, historians say. For nearly 20 years, she protected the legacy of Egypt’s ancient civilization. During her rule, she almost did the impossible: keeping Egypt independent from Rome. Though she failed in the end, she proved to be one of the most accomplished rulers in history.

“She was a highly educated and skilled administrator,” says historian Duane Roller, author of Cleopatra: A Biography, “who fought very hard—yet unsuccessfully—to save her kingdom in a changing world.”

But a dangerous outsider who used her beauty to grasp for power, he adds, “is far more interesting than a competent administrator and ruler, and so that was the version that survived.”

Now a growing body of new research is trying to paint a fuller, truer picture of Cleopatra. So who was she, really?

One surprising but important fact about Cleopatra is that Egypt’s last pharaoh was not actually Egyptian. Her family descended from Ptolemy I (TAHL-eh-mee), who was originally from the European kingdom of Macedonia. He was a chief officer under Alexander the Great, the famed military commander who conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. After Alexander’s death, his top generals divided up his empire. Ptolemy took control of Egypt and founded a dynasty that lasted for 300 years.

Born to royalty in 69 B.C., Cleopatra received the best education available. Ancient authorities say she was exceptionally smart, spoke multiple languages, and had great charm. She showed a keen interest in the people who would later become her subjects. And she may have been the only member of her family’s dynasty to learn the Egyptian language.

Following a long-standing practice, 18-year-old Cleopatra and her younger brother, King Ptolemy XIII, became co-rulers when their father died in 51 B.C. It would take every bit of her smarts to survive what she inherited.

Stock Montage/Getty Images

William Shakespeare’s play Antony and Cleopatra, first performed in England in the early 1600s, is perhaps the most famous depiction of the ancient duo.

By 48 B.C., civil war was brewing in Egypt. Not wanting to share the throne, Cleopatra’s brother had banished her from Egypt’s capital, Alexandria. In a camp to the east of the city, she waited with an army. Bloodshed was certain.

That didn’t sit well with Rome, which had become a rising power and conquered most of the Mediterranean (see Key Dates and map, below). The city-state, under Julius Caesar, had become increasingly involved in Egypt’s affairs. Rome also depended heavily on Egyptian grain to feed its people. Now, seeking to keep the peace, Caesar sailed to Alexandria, took over part of the royal palace, and sent for the warring siblings.

Ptolemy, whose soldiers were blocking the main paths to the capital, was counting on his troops to prevent his sister from showing up. Not to be denied, Cleopatra sailed in a small boat around her brother’s army, then doubled back to Alexandria. Reaching the city, she hid in a large sack and then had an aide sling it over his shoulder and walk into the palace. To Caesar’s astonishment, he found himself face-to-face with Cleopatra.

The Roman was impressed. Although Caesar had intended to place both siblings on the throne, he saw that Cleopatra was someone Rome could depend on. Her brother, not so much. In response, Ptolemy soon joined his army, which besieged Caesar at the palace. The boy later drowned following a clash with Roman soldiers—and when Caesar finally departed Alexandria, he left Cleopatra as pharaoh.

By 48 B.C., civil war was brewing in Egypt. Cleopatra’s brother didn’t want to share the throne. He had her removed from Egypt’s capital, Alexandria. In a camp to the east of the city, she waited with an army. Bloodshed was certain.

That didn’t sit well with Rome, which had become a rising power and conquered most of the Mediterranean (see Key Dates and map, below). The city-state, under Julius Caesar, had become more involved in Egypt’s affairs. Rome also depended heavily on Egyptian grain to feed its people. Now, seeking to keep the peace, Caesar sailed to Alexandria. He took over part of the royal palace and sent for the warring siblings.

Ptolemy’s soldiers were blocking the main paths to the capital. He was counting on his troops to keep his sister from showing up. But Cleopatra outwitted him. She sailed in a small boat around her brother’s army, then doubled back to Alexandria. Reaching the city, she hid in a large sack and then had an aide sling it over his shoulder and walk into the palace. To Caesar’s surprise, he found himself face-to-face with Cleopatra.

The Roman was impressed. Caesar had intended to place both siblings on the throne, but he saw that Cleopatra was someone Rome could depend on. Her brother, not so much. In response, Ptolemy soon joined his army, which attacked Caesar at the palace. The boy later drowned following a clash with Roman soldiers. When Caesar finally departed Alexandria, he left Cleopatra as pharaoh.

Cleopatra threw herself into the task of ruling Egypt. Among her duties, she oversaw a complex farming system that involved distributing seeds and gathering crops. The queen embraced Egypt’s rich cultural history, appearing at religious festivals dressed as the Egyptian goddess Isis. Ordinary Egyptians worshipped her for it.

Cleopatra was no saint. She was probably involved in killing two of her siblings. But in the first years after Caesar left her in charge, the kingdom was prosperous and at peace. Importantly, Caesar also left her with an heir. In 47 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to a son named Caesarion, after the man who was probably his father.

But in 44 B.C., a group of senators assassinated Caesar in Rome. The murder led to a civil war that ended two years later with the rebels’ defeat by two of Caesar’s allies: Octavian, his adopted son and heir, and a brilliant army officer named Marc Antony.

Cleopatra threw herself into the task of ruling Egypt. Among her duties, she oversaw a complex farming system that involved distributing seeds and gathering crops. The queen embraced Egypt’s rich cultural history, appearing at religious festivals dressed as the Egyptian goddess Isis. Ordinary Egyptians worshipped her for it.

Cleopatra was no saint. She was probably involved in killing two of her siblings. But in the first years after Caesar left her in charge, the kingdom thrived and was at peace. Importantly, Caesar also left her with an heir. In 47 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to a son named Caesarion, after the man who was probably his father.

But in 44 B.C., a group of senators assassinated Caesar in Rome. The murder led to a civil war that ended two years later with the rebels’ defeat by two of Caesar’s allies: Octavian, his adopted son and heir, and a brilliant army officer named Marc Antony.

Antony and Octavian agreed to be co-rulers, overseeing different Roman territories. Hearing a rumor that the queen of Egypt had aided the rebels who killed Caesar, Antony sent for Cleopatra to report to him where he had set up camp in the city of Tarsus. The queen sailed up the river to Tarsus on a flower-covered ship to the music of flutes and harps. She lay under a canopy as young maidens steered the craft, and the scent of incense wafted to shore. Like Caesar before him, Antony was wowed.

Antony was not only satisfied by Cleopatra’s assurances of loyalty, he was impressed by her intelligence—along with Egypt’s wealth, displayed in the jewels and gold objects she’d brought.

Antony soon visited Alexandria, and in late 40 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to their twins. Once again, the queen had a link to a powerful Roman leader who could help safeguard her kingdom.

Antony and Octavian agreed to be co-rulers, overseeing different Roman territories. A rumor soon spread that the queen of Egypt had aided the rebels who killed Caesar. After hearing it, Antony sent for Cleopatra to report to him where he had set up camp in the city of Tarsus. The queen sailed up the river to Tarsus on a flower-covered ship to the music of flutes and harps. She lay under a canopy as young maidens steered the craft, and the scent of incense floated to shore. Like Caesar before him, Antony was wowed.

Antony was satisfied by Cleopatra’s promises of loyalty. He was also impressed with her intelligence and Egypt’s wealth, displayed in the jewels and gold objects she’d brought.

Antony soon visited Alexandria, and in late 40 B.C., Cleopatra gave birth to their twins. Once again, the queen had a link to a powerful Roman leader who could help safeguard her kingdom.

Over time, Rome’s two ambitious rulers, Antony and Octavian, began to clash. Antony started spending more and more time with the Egyptian queen—and not with his wife, Octavia, who was Octavian’s sister. Worse, Antony began granting to Cleopatra lands around the Mediterranean that Rome had seized.

Then in 34 B.C., Cleopatra and Antony held a ceremony in Alexandria. Going forward, they announced, Cleopatra was to be known as “Queen of Kings.” Caesarion, her 13-year-old son by Julius Caesar, was to be called “King of Kings.”

Octavian was undoubtedly alarmed at the symbolism. Egypt was on the rise again, the ceremony seemed to announce. Would Caesarion, the only biological heir of the great Caesar, come someday to claim Rome as rightfully his?

In response, Octavian and his supporters waged a ferocious propaganda campaign to denounce Antony—often by attacking Cleopatra. In the days before Twitter, that meant getting senators to condemn him in public and popular poets to spread salacious rumors. Antony had disgraced himself by falling for a foreign queen, they said. They claimed Cleopatra was demanding that Antony make Rome an Egyptian province.

“Because the Romans controlled the dialogue, Cleopatra had to be presented as a danger to the Republic,” says Roller, the historian. “Presenting her in the ancient tradition of a femme fatale was one way to do this.”

Yet Antony remained popular in Rome, and Octavian didn’t want to start a new civil war. So, in 32 B.C., he instead declared war on Cleopatra.

Over time, Rome’s two ambitious rulers, Antony and Octavian, began to clash. Antony started spending more and more time with the Egyptian queen. That meant that he spent less time with his wife, Octavia, who was Octavian’s sister. Worse, Antony began giving Cleopatra lands around the Mediterranean over which Rome had gained control.

Then in 34 B.C., Cleopatra and Antony held a ceremony in Alexandria. Going forward, they announced, Cleopatra was to be known as “Queen of Kings.” Caesarion, her 13-year-old son by Julius Caesar, was to be called “King of Kings.”

Octavian was surely alarmed at the symbolism. Egypt was on the rise again, the ceremony seemed to announce. Caesarion was the only biological heir of the great Caesar. Would he come someday to claim Rome as rightfully his?

In response, Octavian and his supporters waged a brutal disinformation campaign against Antony. In the days before Twitter, that meant getting senators to condemn him in public and popular poets to spread racy rumors. Antony had disgraced himself by falling for a foreign queen, they said. They also often attacked Cleopatra. They claimed that she was demanding that Antony make Rome an Egyptian province.

“Because the Romans controlled the dialogue, Cleopatra had to be presented as a danger to the Republic,” says Roller, the historian. “Presenting her in the ancient tradition of a femme fatale was one way to do this.”

Yet Antony remained popular in Rome, and Octavian didn’t want to start a new civil war. So, in 32 B.C., he instead declared war on Cleopatra.

Cleopatra and Antony accompanied their forces to Greece. There, they clashed with Octavian’s but were outmaneuvered. Finally, on September 2, 31 B.C., Antony and Cleopatra’s navy was soundly defeated in the Battle of Actium.

The two managed to escape back to Alexandria. But the end was coming. In August 30 B.C., as Octavian closed in on Egypt with his army, Antony killed himself. Cleopatra sent messengers to try to make a deal with her foe—offering to step down if she could go safely into exile. Octavian gave no promises.

Soon after, seeing no way out, the queen locked herself in Antony’s tomb and took her own life. In William Shakespeare’s famous play Antony and Cleopatra, she allows herself to be bitten by a snake, but most historians today believe she took poison. Whatever the case, Cleopatra used her last act to deny Octavian the ability to capture and humiliate her.

Cleopatra and Antony accompanied their forces to Greece. There, they clashed with Octavian’s but were overtaken. Finally, on September 2, 31 B.C., Antony and Cleopatra’s navy was defeated in the Battle of Actium.

The two managed to escape back to Alexandria. But the end was coming. In August of 30 B.C., as Octavian closed in on Egypt with his army, Antony killed himself. Cleopatra sent messengers to try to make a deal with her foe. She offered to step down if she could go safely into exile. Octavian gave no promises.

Soon after, seeing no way out, the queen locked herself in Antony’s tomb and took her own life. In William Shakespeare’s famous play Antony and Cleopatra, she allows herself to be bitten by a snake. Today, most historians believe she took poison. Whatever the case, Cleopatra used her last act to deny Octavian the ability to capture and humiliate her.

Pictorial Press Ltd/Alamy Stock Photo

Cleopatra in Hollywood: Actress Elizabeth Taylor in the 1963 film Cleopatra

After Cleopatra’s death, Octavian made Egypt a Roman province. The collapse of the kingdom on the Nile marked a major transition in history. Egypt’s glory days were forever past. Rising in its wake was Rome, a force that would remake much of the world. Octavian would take the name Augustus Caesar, under which he would become the first Roman emperor. During his long reign, the Roman empire would nearly double in size. It would dominate for hundreds of years.

Still, centuries later, fascination with Cleopatra has continued. So why don’t many people know more about who she really was?

Historians say that’s because much of our understanding of her originates from the ancient smear campaign waged by Octavian during his spat with Antony, which painted the queen as a dangerous seductress.

“She was clearly a very glamorous individual,” says historian Adrian Goldsworthy, author of several books on ancient Rome. “But there was far more to her than that.”

After Cleopatra’s death, Octavian made Egypt a Roman province. The fall of the kingdom on the Nile marked a major transition in history. Egypt’s glory days were forever past. Rising in its wake was Rome, a force that would remake much of the world. Octavian would take the name Augustus Caesar, under which he would become the first Roman emperor. During his long reign, the Roman empire would nearly double in size. It would last for hundreds of years.

Still, centuries later, interest in Cleopatra has continued. So why don’t many people know more about who she really was?

Historians say that’s because much of our understanding of her comes from the ancient smear campaign waged by Octavian during his spat with Antony. In it, the queen got painted as a dangerous seductress.

“She was clearly a very glamorous individual,” says historian Adrian Goldsworthy, author of several books on ancient Rome. “But there was far more to her than that.”