The Year of Africa

Just as the clock struck midnight on October 1, 1960, a crisp green-and-white flag climbed the giant flagpole at a horse racing track outside Lagos, Nigeria, replacing the British Union Jack. Fireworks lit up the sky, and tens of thousands of people cheered and sang the words of a new national anthem.

After a century of British colonial rule, Nigeria had become an independent nation.

Nigeria’s first prime minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, sounded both hopeful and somber when he spoke that morning.

“Having been accepted as an independent state, we must at once play an active part in maintaining the peace of the world and in preserving civilization,” he said. “We shall not fail for want of determination.”

Balewa might have been speaking for the entire continent. At the end of 1950, there were just four independent nations in Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa, which was ruled by a White minority. But by the end of 1960, there were 27, with 17 countries gaining their independence that year alone, as Britain, France, and Belgium essentially dismantled their colonial empires in Africa.

“Africans think about 1960 the way Americans think about 1776,” says Ebenezer Obadare, an Africa expert at the Council on Foreign Relations in Washington, D.C. “To see independence happen not just in one country or in two, but in 17 countries was very powerful.”

At midnight on October 1, 1960, the British Union Jack was replaced with a green-and-white flag at a horse racing track outside Lagos, Nigeria. Fireworks lit up the sky. Tens of thousands of people cheered. They sang the words of a new national anthem.

Nigeria had become an independent nation after a century of British colonial rule.

Nigeria’s first prime minister, Sir Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, sounded both hopeful and serious when he spoke that morning.

“Having been accepted as an independent state, we must at once play an active part in maintaining the peace of the world and in preserving civilization,” he said. “We shall not fail for want of determination.”

Balewa might have been speaking for the entire continent of Africa. At the end of 1950, Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia, and South Africa (which was ruled by a White minority) were the only independent nations in Africa. But by the end of 1960, there were 27 free nations on the continent.  Seventeen countries gained their independence that year, as Britain, France, and Belgium ended their colonial empires in Africa.

“Africans think about 1960 the way Americans think about 1776,” says Ebenezer Obadare, an Africa expert at the Council on Foreign Relations in Washington, D.C. “To see independence happen not just in one country or in two, but in 17 countries was very powerful.”

European engagement in Africa began in the mid-15th century, when Portuguese traders arrived in search of gold. Soon they were buying and selling enslaved Africans—many of whom were ultimately sent to America. The trans-Atlantic slave trade lasted more than 300 years and sold some 12.5 million Africans into bondage.

Large-scale colonization, however, came later. In the 1880s, European explorers discovered the riches of the continent, including diamonds, rubber, and iron, setting off what became known as the “scramble for Africa.”

In 1884, the European powers met for a conference in Berlin to carve up the African continent. Britain, Germany, and Portugal—with far greater military power than Africans could muster—claimed swaths of southern and eastern Africa, with France occupying the west and north, and Belgium in today’s Democratic Republic of the Congo (D.R.C.) in the continent’s center (see timeline slideshow, below). By 1900, European nations controlled 90 percent of Africa.

Colonial rule brought some benefits, including many roads, railroads, and educational and government institutions that survive today. But it was also riddled with abuses. Africans hired to oversee colonies often ruled cruelly, and direct European control could be even worse: In the late 19th century, the D.R.C.’s first colonial ruler, Belgium’s King Leopold II, boosted production at rubber plantations and mines by ordering managers to hack off the hands of slow workers.

“Colonialism was violent,” says Timothy Longman, an international relations professor at Boston University. “It involved taking over territory and forcing people to lose their political rights to an outside force and then to work for that outside force, to pay taxes, and provide resources for it.”

In addition, the European powers drew territorial borders arbitrarily and without regard for tribal relationships or geographic considerations. More than a century later, many of those borders remain in place—and are responsible for much of the ethnic turmoil and fighting in Africa today, from Sudan to the D.R.C.

After World War II, a bankrupt and devastated Europe faced increasing demands for freedom from its colonies. In some cases, such as that of Kenya, independence movements turned violent, as guerrilla fighters attacked colonial governments. In other places, like Ghana, African political leaders pushed for self-determination and rallied support with little or no bloodshed.

European involvement in Africa began in the mid-15th century, when Portuguese traders arrived in search of gold. Soon they were buying and selling enslaved Africans—many of whom were ultimately sent to America. The trans-Atlantic slave trade lasted more than 300 years. Some 12.5 million Africans were sold into bondage.

Large-scale colonization, however, came later. In the 1880s, European explorers discovered the riches of the continent, including diamonds, rubber, and iron. These discoveries started what became known as the “scramble for Africa.”

In 1884, the European powers met for a conference in Berlin to carve up the African continent. Britain, Germany, and Portugal—with far greater military power than Africans could gather—claimed large areas of southern and eastern Africa. France occupied the west and north.  Belgium claimed the continent’s center in what is today’s Democratic Republic of the Congo (D.R.C.) (see timeline slideshow, below). By 1900, European nations controlled 90 percent of Africa.

Colonial rule brought some benefits. Many roads, railroads, and educational and government institutions still survive today. But it was also riddled with abuses. Africans hired to oversee colonies were often cruel rulers. Direct European control could be even worse. In the late 19th century, the D.R.C.’s first colonial ruler was Belgium’s King Leopold II. He boosted production at rubber plantations and mines by ordering managers to cut off the hands of slow workers.

“Colonialism was violent,” says Timothy Longman, an international relations professor at Boston University. “It involved taking over territory and forcing people to lose their political rights to an outside force and then to work for that outside force, to pay taxes, and provide resources for it.”

In addition, the territorial borders were drawn arbitrarily by the European powers. The borders did not consider tribal relationships or geographic elements. More than a century later, many of those borders remain in place and cause much of the ethnic turmoil and fighting in Africa today, from Sudan to the D.R.C.

After World War II, Europe was bankrupt and devastated. There was increasing demand for freedom from its African colonies. In some cases, like in Kenya, independence movements turned violent. Guerrilla fighters attacked colonial governments. In other places, like Ghana, African political leaders pushed for self-determination and rallied support with little or no bloodshed.

In Nigeria, freedom came gradually. In 1946, Britain agreed to demands for Nigerian representation in the colonial government. Eight years later, Britain granted regional governments more power, laying the groundwork for the end of colonial rule in 1960. Nine more British colonies—including Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia—became independent in the next six years.

The French had a rockier exit from Africa. They fought a brutal eight-year war to try to hold on to Algeria, finally giving up in 1962. And French forces in Cameroon killed an estimated 10,000 Africans when they put down a revolt there that began in 1955.

Exhausted by the conflict, the French were ready to give up most of their empire by the end of that decade. Fourteen of the 17 African nations that gained independence in 1960 were French colonies.

All these new African nations emerged at the height of the Cold War (1946-91) between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The U.S. and its allies were determined to stop the spread of Communism, and Africa became another front in the Cold War.

“Africa became a place where the Cold War was a hot war, where the Soviets and the Americans were funding rebel groups to fight each other,” says Longman. “There were lots of civil wars that tore through the continent that were really more about geopolitical conflicts than anything to do with Africa.”

In Nigeria, freedom came slowly. In 1946, Britain agreed to demands for Nigerian representation in the colonial government. Eight years later, Britain granted regional governments more power. This was the groundwork for the end of colonial rule in 1960. Nine more British colonies—including Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, and Zambia—became independent in the next six years.

The French had a rockier exit from Africa. They fought a brutal eight-year war to try to hold on to Algeria. The conflict ended in 1962. An estimated 10,000 Africans were killed by the French when they tried to end a revolt in Cameroon that began in 1955.

The French were exhausted by the conflict. They were ready to give up most of their empire by the end of the 1950s. Fourteen of the 17 African nations that gained independence in 1960 were French colonies.

All these new African nations emerged at the height of the Cold War (1946-91) between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The U.S. and its allies were determined to stop the spread of Communism. Africa became another front in the Cold War.

“Africa became a place where the Cold War was a hot war, where the Soviets and the Americans were funding rebel groups to fight each other,” says Longman. “There were lots of civil wars that tore through the continent that were really more about geopolitical conflicts than anything to do with Africa.”

The D.R.C. was one of the nations where the Cold War played out. It gained independence in 1960 after Belgian forces fled in the face of rioting. The country soon fell into conflict, during which Colonel Joseph Mobutu, the army’s chief of staff, seized control. Years later, it was revealed that the U.S., fearing that the D.R.C. would become a Communist nation, secretly helped the anti-Soviet Mobutu take control.

Mobutu turned into one of Africa’s most brutal and corrupt dictators. He ruled for more than 30 years, turning the mineral-rich country into his personal piggy bank. Rebels ousted Mobutu in 1997 amid another civil war, but the nation still feels the devastation of his regime. The D.R.C. remains deeply in debt, and violent conflict in the eastern part of the country has created a humanitarian catastrophe there.

The D.R.C. isn’t the only African country that has struggled since gaining independence. Sudan, which broke free from Britain in 1956, was racked by civil war for decades, during which more than 2 million people died. In the early 2000s, ethnic violence by Arab militias against Black Sudanese in the Darfur region killed more than 300,000 people and turned 3 million into refugees.

In 2011, South Sudan broke away and formed its own nation. But that didn’t stop the fighting in either country. And in 2023, a power struggle between two military generals in Sudan erupted into a new civil war, with fighting in the capital, Khartoum.

Despite ongoing conflict and stubborn poverty in some African nations, much of the continent is showing signs of impressive growth 65 years after “the Year of Africa” first sowed the seeds of sovereignty. In fact, Africa is experiencing a moment of enormous rising potential.

The D.R.C. was one of the nations where the Cold War played out. It gained independence in 1960 after Belgian forces fled in the face of rioting. The country soon fell into conflict. Colonel Joseph Mobutu, the army’s chief of staff, seized control. Years later, it was revealed that the U.S. secretly helped the anti-Soviet Mobutu take control to prevent the spread of Communism.

Mobutu turned into one of Africa’s most brutal and corrupt dictators. He ruled for more than 30 years. He turned the mineral-rich country into his personal piggy bank. During a civil war in 1997, rebels ousted Mobutu. Today the nation still feels the devastation of his rule. The D.R.C. remains deeply in debt. A violent conflict in the eastern part of the country has created a humanitarian catastrophe there.

The D.R.C. isn’t the only African country that has struggled since gaining independence. Sudan, which gained independence from Britain in 1956, was plagued by civil war for decades. More than 2 million people died. In the early 2000s, ethnic violence by Arab militias against Black Sudanese in the Darfur region killed more than 300,000 people and turned 3 million into refugees.

In 2011, South Sudan broke away and formed its own nation. But that didn’t stop the fighting in either country. In 2023, a new civil war broke out in Sudan. Two military generals were fighting in the capital, Khartoum.

Despite ongoing conflict and stubborn poverty in some nations, much of Africa is showing signs of impressive growth 65 years after “the Year of Africa” first sowed the seeds of independence. In fact, Africa is experiencing a moment of enormous rising potential.

Africa is the most rapidly urbanizing continent on Earth. Its population of millionaires, which is the fastest growing worldwide, is expected to double to 768,000 by 2027. It’s home to 670 million cellphones. Africa is expected to account for 12 of the 20 fastest-growing economies in the world in 2025, according to the African Development Bank.

Unlike many regions, where populations are stagnant or declining, Africa’s population is booming: It’s projected to nearly double in the next 25 years to 2.5 billion people. And much of that population is young. The median age on the African continent is 19. (In the U.S. and China, it’s 38.)

Africa’s skyrocketing population is partly a result of remarkable progress. Infant mortality has been halved since 2000. Young Africans are more educated and connected than ever: 44 percent graduated from high school in 2020, up from 27 percent in 2000, and about 570 million people use the internet.

Africa is the most rapidly urbanizing continent on Earth. Its population of millionaires is the fastest growing worldwide. It is expected to double to 768,000 by 2027. There are 670 million cellphones on the continent. According to the African Development Bank, in 2025 Africa is expected to account for 12 of the 20 fastest-growing economies in the world.

In many regions, populations are stagnant or declining. In contrast, Africa’s population is booming. It’s projected to nearly double in the next 25 years to 2.5 billion people. And much of that population is young. The median age on the African continent is 19. (In the U.S. and China, it’s 38.)

Africa’s growing population is partly a result of remarkable progress. Infant deaths have been cut in half since 2000. Young Africans are more educated and connected than ever. In 2020, 44 percent graduated from high school, up from 27 percent in 2000. About 570 million people use the internet.

Start-ups have recently sprouted in countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Morocco. Innovative technologies have brought mobile banking to tens of millions of people. Women-only computer coding schools have emerged across the continent. Microsoft and Google have established major offices in Kenya.

Obadare, the Africa expert, is well aware of Africa’s ongoing problems and unrealized potential, but he remains optimistic about the continent’s future—largely because of its youth.

“I see so many areas in Africa where young people are becoming increasingly assertive,” he says. “You see young people protesting about political maltreatment. You see young women . . . demanding justice, demanding better treatment from politicians, insisting on their right to vote and holding politicians accountable. It gives me hope.”

Start-ups have recently sprouted in countries such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Morocco. Innovative technologies have brought mobile banking to tens of millions of people. Women-only computer coding schools have emerged. Microsoft and Google have established major offices in Kenya.

Obadare, the Africa expert, is well aware of Africa’s ongoing problems and unrealized potential, but he remains optimistic about the continent’s future—largely because of its youth.

“I see so many areas in Africa where young people are becoming increasingly assertive,” he says. “You see young people protesting about political maltreatment. You see young women . . . demanding justice, demanding better treatment from politicians, insisting on their right to vote and holding politicians accountable. It gives me hope.” 

With reporting by Michael Wines and Declan Walsh of The New York Times.

With reporting by Michael Wines and Declan Walsh of The New York Times.