Two Years of War

After two years of devastating fighting, Israel and Hamas, the Palestinian militant group that governs Gaza, are at an impasse, unable to reach a deal to end the war.

The conflict began after a Hamas-led attack on Israel, on October 7, 2023. According to Israeli authorities, during that attack, roughly 1,200 people were killed and 250 others taken hostage, mostly civilians. The attack prompted the current war in Gaza, which has killed more than 60,000 Palestinians, including combatants and civilians, according to Palestinian health officials.

The two sides brokered two brief breaks in the fighting, most recently between mid-January and early March. As of press time, experts say both sides are refusing to make the necessary compromises for a permanent ceasefire.

In the meantime, Gaza is experiencing a severe hunger crisis; a United Nations-backed group has declared famine in the northern part of the territory. Israel, while still maintaining U.S. support, is under growing pressure to end the war from many of its traditional allies as well as its own citizens—who want to secure the return of the 20 remaining hostages still believed to be alive, along with the remains of 28 others.

Here’s what you need to know to understand the situation.

Israel and Hamas, the Palestinian militant group that governs Gaza, are at an impasse. They are unable to reach a deal to end the war after two years of devastating fighting.

The conflict began after a Hamas-led attack on Israel, on October 7, 2023. According to Israeli authorities, during that attack, roughly 1,200 people were killed. Another 250 people, mostly civilians, were taken hostage. The attack prompted the current war in Gaza. According to Palestinian health officials, 60,000 Palestinians, including combatants and civilians, have been killed.

The two sides agreed to two brief breaks in the fighting, most recently between mid-January and early March. As of press time, experts say both sides are refusing to make the necessary compromises for a permanent ceasefire.

In the meantime, Gaza is experiencing a severe hunger crisis. A famine has been declared in the northern part of the territory by a United Nations-backed group. Israel, while still maintaining U.S. support, is under growing pressure to end the war from many of its traditional allies as well as its own citizens. People want to secure the return of the 20 remaining hostages still believed to be alive, along with the remains of 28 others.

Here’s what you need to know to understand the situation.

At the heart of the conflict is a dispute over the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea, which is sacred in Jewish, Islamic, and Christian traditions.

In ancient times, Jewish people and, briefly, Christian people controlled the area. For 400 years beginning in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire ruled the region of Palestine, which by then was made up predominantly of Arabs and Muslims, followers of Islam. But after the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I, the League of Nations gave Palestine to Britain in 1922, with a mandate to govern until the land could be turned over to its inhabitants.

Meanwhile, the Jewish population in the area grew rapidly with the rise of Zionism, a movement that encouraged the creation of a modern Jewish homeland in response to persistent anti-Semitic violence in Europe. Jewish migration to the region further increased after the Holocaust of World War II, in which Nazi Germany killed 6 million Jewish people.

Throughout the early 20th century, Jewish and Arab nationalists battled for dominance in the land against the British occupiers, leading to a 1947 civil war. That year, British officials decided to withdraw from the region, and the United Nations (U.N.), successor to the League of Nations, proposed partitioning Palestine into Arab and Jewish states. Palestinian Arabs and surrounding Arab countries refused to recognize the arrangement.

In May 1948, the Jewish community in Palestine declared Israel’s independence, and the war with the neighboring Arab states that followed ended with an armistice that left the Israelis in control of 80 percent of British-ruled Palestine, far more land than had been allotted in the partition.

A series of wars in the following decades strengthened Israel and left it occupying two heavily Arab territories: the West Bank and Gaza.

Israelis have built more than 140 settlements in the West Bank, complicating the prospects for a cohesive Palestinian state that Palestinians and leaders around the world have long sought. Palestinians have staged periodic uprisings, campaigns of terror, and rocket attacks, and Israel has responded with fierce military attacks. The result has been thousands of deaths on both sides, including many civilians.

At the heart of the conflict is a dispute over the land between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. This land is sacred in Jewish, Islamic, and Christian traditions.

In ancient times, Jewish people and, briefly, Christian people controlled the area. Beginning in the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire ruled the region of Palestine for 400 years. The area was made up mostly of Arabs and Muslims, followers of Islam. But after the Ottoman Empire’s defeat in World War I, the League of Nations gave Palestine to Britain in 1922. Britain was given a mandate to govern until the land could be turned over to its inhabitants.

Meanwhile, the Jewish population in the area grew rapidly with the rise of Zionism. The movement encouraged the creation of a modern Jewish homeland in response to persistent anti-Semitic violence in Europe. Jewish migration to the region further increased after the Holocaust of World War II, in which Nazi Germany killed 6 million Jewish people.

Throughout the early 20th century, Jewish and Arab nationalists battled for dominance in the land against the British occupiers. This led to civil war in 1947. That year, British officials decided to withdraw from the region. The United Nations (U.N.), successor to the League of Nations, proposed partitioning Palestine into Arab and Jewish states. Palestinian Arabs and surrounding Arab countries refused to recognize the arrangement.

In May 1948, the Jewish community in Palestine declared Israel’s independence. War with the neighboring Arab states followed. The conflict ended with an armistice that left the Israelis in control of 80 percent of British-ruled Palestine. This was far more land than had been allotted in the partition.

A series of wars in the following decades strengthened Israel and left it occupying two heavily Arab territories: the West Bank and Gaza.

Israelis have built more than 140 settlements in the West Bank. These settlements have complicated the prospects for a cohesive Palestinian state that Palestinians and leaders around the world have long sought. Palestinians have staged periodic uprisings, campaigns of terror, and rocket attacks. Israel has responded with fierce military attacks. The result has been thousands of deaths on both sides, including many civilians.

The Gaza war began with the Hamas-led attack on southern Israel on October 7, 2023. Hamas, which has controlled the Gaza Strip since 2007, rejects the existence of Israel, which it says is occupying Palestine. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu responded to the attack by declaring war on Hamas. The ensuing military campaign has leveled much of Gaza, and tens of thousands of Palestinians and hundreds of Israeli troops have been killed.

Many experts believe the Hamas attack was timed to derail a developing deal normalizing diplomatic ties between Saudi Arabia—one of the most powerful Arab nations—and Israel, mediated by the U.S.

October 7 returned Palestine to “the top of the regional agenda and the world agenda,” says Nader Hashemi, a professor of Middle East politics at Georgetown University. “I think this was the goal of the Hamas attack.”

Many Arab nations had long refused to establish diplomatic relations with Israel in protest of its “occupation” of Palestinian territories. But the 2020 Abraham Accords, brokered by the U.S. during President Trump’s first term, established ties between Israel and the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan.

Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries have long championed the creation of a Palestinian state. But Palestinian statehood wasn’t raised as a condition in the initial normalization talks with Israel. Since the war, however, the Saudi government has shifted its tone, saying that the region needs to be on an irreversible path to statehood for the Palestinians.

The Gaza war began with the Hamas-led attack on southern Israel on October 7, 2023. Hamas, which has controlled the Gaza Strip since 2007, rejects the existence of Israel. It claims Israel is occupying Palestine. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu responded to the attack by declaring war on Hamas. The ensuing military campaign has destroyed much of Gaza. Tens of thousands of Palestinians and hundreds of Israeli troops have been killed.

Many experts believe the Hamas attack was timed to derail a U.S.-mediated deal normalizing diplomatic ties between Saudi Arabia—one of the most powerful Arab nations—and Israel.

October 7 returned Palestine to “the top of the regional agenda and the world agenda,” says Nader Hashemi, a professor of Middle East politics at Georgetown University. “I think this was the goal of the Hamas attack.”

Many Arab nations had long refused to establish diplomatic relations with Israel in protest of its “occupation” of Palestinian territories. But the 2020 Abraham Accords, brokered by the U.S. during President Trump’s first term, established ties between Israel and the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Morocco, and Sudan.

Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries have long championed the creation of a Palestinian state. But Palestinian statehood wasn’t a condition of the initial normalization talks with Israel. Since the war, however, the Saudi government has shifted its tone. They now say that the region needs to be on an irreversible path to statehood for the Palestinians.

The years of intense fighting have weakened Hamas. Israel has killed thousands of its members, including many top leaders, and says it occupies about 75 percent of Gaza. But Hamas still remains in control of the territory’s key urban areas.

Famine is unfolding across Gaza City and surrounding areas, according to the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (I.P.C.), a U.N.-backed group. After Israel ended a two-month ceasefire with Hamas in March and resumed its military campaign, it cut off all food supplies to Gaza for 11 weeks, in an attempt to pressure Hamas to release the remaining hostages. In September, nearly one in three people in the territory were going without food for days at a time, the U.N. said.

Rhama Abu Abed, 12, who lives in Gaza with her family, was eating one meal a day this summer.

“If someone gave me a choice between crayons and bread,” she said, “I would choose the bread.”

Israelis whose family members remain captive in Gaza worry that the longer the war drags on, the less likely it is the hostages will ever return home.

“Our brothers are turning into skin and bones at this very moment,” says Einav Zangauker, whose son Matan was taken by Hamas in the 2023 attack.

 Israelis are increasingly questioning what has been achieved by a return to war after the last ceasefire. A July poll from the Israeli news outlet Channel 12 found that 74 percent backed an agreement with Hamas that would release all the hostages at once in exchange for a ceasefire, and 55 percent disapproved of Prime Minister Netanyahu’s handling of the war. In August, hundreds of thousands rallied in Tel Aviv to call for an end to the conflict and the return of the hostages.

The years of intense fighting have weakened Hamas. Thousands of its members, including many top leaders, have been killed. Israel claims to occupy about 75 percent of Gaza. But Hamas still remains in control of the territory’s key urban areas.

Famine is unfolding across Gaza City and surrounding areas, according to the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (I.P.C.), a U.N.-backed group. After Israel ended a two-month ceasefire with Hamas in March, it resumed its military campaign. Food supplies were cut off to Gaza for 11 weeks, in an attempt to pressure Hamas to release the remaining hostages. In September, nearly one in three people in the territory were going without food for days at a time, the U.N. said.

Rhama Abu Abed, 12, who lives in Gaza with her family, was eating one meal a day this summer.

“If someone gave me a choice between crayons and bread,” she said, “I would choose the bread.”

Israelis whose family members remain captive in Gaza worry that the longer the war drags on, the less likely it is the hostages will ever return home.

“Our brothers are turning into skin and bones at this very moment,” says Einav Zangauker, whose son Matan was taken by Hamas in the 2023 attack.

 Israelis are now wondering what has been achieved by a return to war after the last ceasefire. A July poll from the Israeli news outlet Channel 12 found that 74 percent backed an agreement with Hamas that would release all the hostages at once in exchange for a ceasefire. Fifty-five percent disapproved of Prime Minister Netanyahu’s handling of the war. In August, hundreds of thousands rallied in Tel Aviv. They called for an end to the conflict and the return of the hostages.

Netanyahu says the Israeli military plans to capture Gaza City, which he calls “a Hamas stronghold.” His critics say the war’s escalation will needlessly endanger the hostages and Israeli soldiers. Even some Israelis who broadly supported the renewed fighting have expressed skepticism about what it has accomplished.

“We are no closer to achieving our main war goal—to erase the military and governmental capabilities of Hamas—and Hamas has not become more flexible,” says Michael Milstein, an Israeli analyst and former military intelligence officer. “We find ourselves right now in a total disaster.”

Hamas has governed Gaza without allowing dissent or elections. Palestinians rarely criticize Hamas publicly, but some in Gaza have expressed anger that the militant group’s attack on Israel has led to so much destruction and death. In September, Abdullah Shehab, 32, a Palestinian who fled his home in Gaza earlier in the war, called the Hamas attack a “catastrophic error.”

 Netanyahu says the Israeli military plans to capture Gaza City, which he calls “a Hamas stronghold.” His critics say the war’s escalation will needlessly put the hostages and Israeli soldiers in danger. Even some Israelis who broadly supported the renewed fighting have expressed doubt about what it has accomplished.

“We are no closer to achieving our main war goal—to erase the military and governmental capabilities of Hamas—and Hamas has not become more flexible,” says Michael Milstein, an Israeli analyst and former military intelligence officer. “We find ourselves right now in a total disaster.”

Hamas has governed Gaza without allowing dissent or elections. Palestinians rarely criticize Hamas publicly. However, some in Gaza have expressed anger that the militant group’s attack on Israel has led to so much destruction and death. In September, Abdullah Shehab, 32, a Palestinian who fled his home in Gaza earlier in the war, called the Hamas attack a “catastrophic error.”

The Trump administration has largely taken a hands-off approach to Israel’s military campaign in Gaza, while continuing to provide military aid to Israel. At the same time, President Trump is trying to broker a deal to end the war and bring home the Israeli hostages. But growing anger over civilian deaths and hunger in Gaza has damaged Israel’s reputation among many Americans, especially young people.

According to a July Gallup poll, 9 percent of Americans ages 18-34 approve of Israel’s military action in Gaza, compared with 49 percent of people 55 and older.

The Trump administration has largely taken a hands-off approach to Israel’s military campaign in Gaza, while continuing to provide military aid to Israel. At the same time, President Trump is trying to negotiate a deal to end the war and bring home the Israeli hostages. But growing anger over civilian deaths and hunger in Gaza has damaged Israel’s reputation among many Americans. This is true especially among young people.

According to a July Gallup poll, 9 percent of Americans ages 18-34 approve of Israel’s military action in Gaza. This is compared with 49 percent of people 55 and older.

Facing political pressure from voters, some of Israel’s most important Western allies—including Canada, Britain, and France—now say they will recognize a Palestinian state, joining the 147 out of 193 U.N. member states that already do so. This is largely a symbolic move, given that Palestinian territory and leadership are divided between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank (see map, below). Israel’s government—which places the blame for the situation in Gaza solely on Hamas, for the attack that started the war— opposes a Palestinian state, saying it would endanger Israel’s security.

The U.N. and the International Criminal Court have accused both Israeli and Hamas leaders with war crimes and crimes against humanity.

Facing political pressure from voters, some of Israel’s most important Western allies—including Canada, Britain, and France—now say they will recognize a Palestinian state. They will join the 147 out of 193 U.N. member states that already do so. This is largely a symbolic move. The Palestinian territory and leadership are divided between the Gaza Strip and the West Bank (see map, below). Israel’s government places the blame for the situation in Gaza solely on Hamas, for the attack that started the war. The government opposes a Palestinian state, saying it would endanger Israel’s security.

The U.N. and the International Criminal Court have accused both Israeli and Hamas leaders with war crimes and crimes against humanity.

For months, ceasefire talks between Israel and Hamas have remained at a stalemate. Israel wants Hamas to release all the remaining hostages in exchange for Palestinian prisoners, and to agree to lay down its weapons and cede control of Gaza. Hamas has said it’s willing to give up governing Gaza, but it won’t surrender its weapons unless a Palestinian state is established.

However the war might eventually end, civilians on both sides will have to grapple with the emotional scars of the conflict for many years to come.

Says Jon Alterman of the Center for Strategic and International Studies: “Addressing this trauma . . . is going to be a really important element in ensuring this doesn’t happen again.”

For months, ceasefire talks between Israel and Hamas have stalled. Israel wants Hamas to release all the remaining hostages in exchange for Palestinian prisoners. They also want Hamas to agree to lay down its weapons and cede control of Gaza. Hamas has said it’s willing to give up governing Gaza. But Hamas won’t surrender its weapons unless a Palestinian state is established.

No matter how the war ends, civilians on both sides will have to deal with the emotional scars of the conflict for many years to come.

Says Jon Alterman of the Center  for Strategic and International Studies: “Addressing this trauma . . . is going to be a really important element in ensuring this doesn’t happen again.” 

With reporting by Aaron Boxerman, Edward Wong, Isabel Kershner, Vivian Nereim, Patrick Kingsley, Vivian Yee, Adam Rasgon, Hilba Yazbek, and Bilal Shbair of The Times.

With reporting by Aaron Boxerman, Edward Wong, Isabel Kershner, Vivian Nereim, Patrick Kingsley, Vivian Yee, Adam Rasgon, Hilba Yazbek, and Bilal Shbair of The Times.